Demography of Europe – 2024 edition (2024)

Demographic statistics are among the most popular data Eurostat produces, and they are important for almost every area of policy.

This publication shows what official European statistics can tell us about how the population is developing, ageing, and much more. It provides possibilities to investigate EU and country level data and compare trends over several years.

Before you dive in, why don’t you take a guess how the population of your country is projected to develop until 2100? Test your knowledge

Population structure

This section presents population size and density, the ratio of women to men as well as ageing.

A growing population

EU population growth resumed in 2022

On 1 January 2023, there were 448.8 million people living in the European Union (EU). The most populous EU country was Germany (84.4 million, 19% of the EU total), followed by France (68.2 million, 15%), Italy (59.0 million, 13%), Spain (48.1 million, 11%) and Poland (36.8 million, 8%). In total, these five EU countries accounted for 66% of the EU population. At the other end of the range, the least populous EU countries were Malta (542 000 people, corresponding to 0.1% of the EU total), Luxembourg (661 000, also 0.1%) and Cyprus (921 000, 0.2%).

During the 20-year period 1 January 2003 to 1 January 2023, the total population of the EU increased from 431.2 million to 448.8 million, a growth of 4%. During this period, 18 EU countries showed increases in their population and 9 recorded decreases. The largest relative increases were recorded in Luxembourg (47%), Malta (36%), Ireland (33%), and Cyprus (29%), while the largest relative decreases were observed in Latvia (−18%), Bulgaria and Lithuania (both −17%), and Romania (−12%). The largest absolute increases were recorded in France and Spain (both 6.3 million), while the largest absolute decreases were observed in Romania (−2.6 million), Poland(−1.5 million), and Bulgaria (−1.4 million).

Population density in the EU ranges from 18 to 1 693 people per km²

The population density, meaning the number of people per square kilometre (km²), was on average 109 persons per km² in the EU in 2022. This value varied significantly between EU countries. The highest population density was observed in Malta (1 693 persons per km²), followed at a distance by the Netherlands (518) and Belgium (384). At the other end of the range were Finland (18 persons per km²) and Sweden (26) with the lowest population densities.

Comparing 2022 with 2002, there was an increase in the population density in 18 of the EU countries, with the largest growths in Malta (from 1 255 to 1 693 persons per km²), Luxembourg (from 173 to 253) and Belgium (341 to 384). Romania (95 to 81) and Bulgaria (71 to 60) had the largest decreases. On average in the EU, the population density increased from 105 persons per km² to 109 during this period.

More women than men

Almost 5% more women than men in the EU

On 1 January 2023, there were 229 million women and 219 million men in the EU. This corresponds to a ratio of 104.6 women per 100 men, which means that there were 4.6% more women than men. There were more women than men in all EU countries, except Malta, Sweden, Luxembourg, and Slovenia. The highest rates were found in Latvia (16% more women than men) and Lithuania (14% more).

For comparison, 20 years earlier, on 1 January 2003, there were 5.4% more women than men in the EU, with a minimum ratio of 101.3 women per 100 men in Ireland and a maximum of 118.0 in Latvia. During the period 2003-2023, the highest increase in the rate was recorded in Bulgaria (from 105.3 to 108.0 women per 100 men), while the highest decrease was in Malta (from 101.8 to 90.3 women per 100 men).

An ageing population

Share of those aged 80+ increased from 3.7% to 6.0% between 2003 and 2023

Over the period 1 January 2003 to 1 January 2023, the share of persons aged 80 and over grew in all EU countries, at EU level by 2.3 percentage points (pp), from 3.7% to 6.0%. The highest increase was in Greece (+3.3 pp, from 3.8% to 7.1%) and Latvia (also +3.3 pp, from 2.7% to 6.0%), and the lowest in Sweden (+0.2 pp, from 5.3% to 5.5%).

Over the same period, also the share of persons aged 65 and over increased in all EU countries. At EU level, the increase was 5.1 pp, from 16.2% to 21.3%.

Share of those aged below 15 decreased from 16.4% to 14.9% between 2003 and 2023

Over the period 1 January 2003 to 1 January 2023, the share of children and young adolescents (those aged below 15) decreased at EU level 1.5 pp, from 16.4% to 14.9%. A decrease was observed in all EU countries, except Czechia (+0.6 pp), Estonia, and Slovenia (both +0.01 pp), with highest decreases in Malta (−6.0 pp) and Cyprus (−4.9 pp). On 1 January 2023, the share of children and young adolescents was highest in Ireland (19.3%) and lowest in Italy (12.4%).

Over the same period, the share of young people (aged 0 to 19 years old) decreased in all EU countries. At EU level, the decrease was 2.5 pp, from 22.6% to 20.1%.

Median age of the population in the EU: 44.5 years

Another way of analysing the ageing of society in the EU is by looking at the median age of the population. The median age increased in the period 2003 to 2023: it was 39.0 years in 2003, 42.2 years in 2013 and 44.5 years in 2023 (on the 1 January). This means an increase of 5.5 years in the median age in the EU during this 20-year period.

Among the EU countries, the highest median age on 1 January 2023 was observed in Italy (48.4 years), followed by Portugal (47.0), Bulgaria (46.8), and Greece (46.5), while the lowest were recorded in Cyprus (38.4 years), Ireland (39.1), Luxembourg (39.7) and Malta (40.1). During the period 2003 to 2023, the median age increased the most in Portugal (8.5 years) and Romania (8.3) and the least in Sweden (1.1) and Luxembourg (2.0).

Population change

This section focuses on births and deaths, age of mothers and number of children, as well as life expectancy and excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Fewer births, more deaths

Live births decreasing

In the EU, the crude birth rate, showing the number of live births per 1 000 persons, was 10.1 in 2002, went up to 10.6 in 2008 and has decreased since then to 8.7 in 2022. Among the EU countries, comparing 2022 with 2002, there was a decrease in 22 countries and an increase in 4, while the rate was same in Bulgaria. In 2022, the highest crude birth rates were found in Cyprus (11.2 live births per 1 000 persons), France (10.7), Ireland (10.5) and Sweden (10.0) and the lowest in Italy (6.7), Spain (6.9) and Greece (7.3).

Number of deaths increasing

The crude death rate (number of deaths per 1 000 persons) was 10.0 in 2002 in the EU, fluctuated between 9.7 and 10.1 until 2014, and then increased somewhat, varying between 10.2 and 10.5 during 2015-2019. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it increased to 11.6 in 2020 and 11.9 in 2021, before decreasing somewhat to 11.5 in 2022. In 21 EU countries, there was an increase in the rate during this period, and in 6 countries a decrease. In 2022, the highest crude death rates were observed in Bulgaria (17.9 deaths per 1 000 persons), Latvia (16.4), Lithuania (15.1) and Croatia (14.8), and the lowest in Ireland and Luxembourg (both 6.8) and Cyprus and Malta (both 8.0).

A negative natural population change in the EU since 2012

As mentioned earlier, the population in the EU grew from 1 January 2001 until 1 January 2020, then declined during the next two years, before growing again during 2022. The EU’s natural population change (difference between live births and deaths) has however, been negative already since 2012. This is in large part due to the ageing population described earlier in this publication, as well as to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2022.

In 2002, the crude rate of natural population change was +0.2 per 1 000 persons and remained positive until 2011. The rate turned negative in 2012 and has continuously decreased since 2016 to reach −1.1 in 2019, −2.5 in 2020, −2.7 in 2021, and −2.9 in 2022. The highest negative crude rates of natural population change in 2022 were observed in Bulgaria (−9.4), Latvia (−7.9), and Lithuania (−7.4), and the highest positive ones were found in Ireland (+3.8), Cyprus (+3.2), and Luxembourg (+3.1).

Older mothers

1.46 children per woman in 2022

During the period 2002-2022 in the EU, the lowest value of total fertility rate (number of live births per woman) was 1.43 in 2002 and the highest 1.57 in 2008, 2010 and 2016. In 2022, the total fertility rate was 1.46. Among the EU countries, France (1.79 live births per woman) had the highest total fertility rate, followed by Romania (1.71) and Bulgaria (1.65). The lowest rates were found in Malta (1.08), Spain (1.16) and Italy (1.24).

Over the period 2002-2022, the largest decreases in the total fertility rate were observed in Ireland (from 1.97 live births per woman in 2002 to 1.54 in 2022), Finland (from 1.72 to 1.32), and Malta (from 1.45 to 1.08), while the highest increases were found in Czechia (from 1.17 in 2002 to 1.64 in 2022), Romania (from 1.27 to 1.71), and Bulgaria (from 1.23 to 1.65).

Age of women at birth of first child increasing to 29.7 years

The mean age of first-time mothers in the EU has increased: in 2013 the mean age of women at birth of their first child was 28.8 years (for 6 countries the earliest available year is within the period 2006-2013 and the EU aggregate can be calculated only from 2013). This increased as an average every year by 0.1 years, to reach 29.7 in 2022. There was an increase in this mean age in all EU countries during the period between 2002 (or first year available) and 2022 (for 6 countries the earliest available year is within the period 2006-2013). The highest increases were in Estonia (4.1 years) and Lithuania (3.9), while the lowest increase was in France (1.0 years). In 2022, the oldest first-time mothers were found in Italy (31.7 years) and Spain (31.6) and the youngest in Bulgaria (26.6) and Romania (27.0).

Share of births to mothers aged 40 and over more than doubled between 2002 and 2022

Another way of analysing fertility trends is to look at the share of live births to mothers aged 40 and over in total live births in a year. In the EU, this share in 2022 was 2.4-fold compared with the share in 2002, as it grew from 2.5% in to 6.0%. The proportion of live births to mothers aged at least 40 increased in all EU countries during this period. In 2022, the largest share was found in Ireland (11.2% of all live births), followed by Spain (11.0%) and Greece (10.0%), and the lowest in Romania and Slovakia (both 3.5%), and Lithuania (3.6%).

Women live longer

Increase in life expectancy of 3.8 years between 2003 and 2023

The population in the EU is ageing and one reason is the increasing life expectancy – the population lives longer and longer. Life expectancy at birth rose rapidly during the last century due to several factors, including reductions in infant mortality, rising living standards, improved lifestyles and better education, as well as advances in healthcare and medicine.

In 2003, the life expectancy at birth in the EU was 77.7 years, a value which increased by 3.6 years to 81.3 in 2019. Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic life expectancy fell to 80.4 years in 2020 and further to 80.1 years in 2021. It rebounded to 80.6 years in 2022 and to 81.5 years in 2023, which is 0.2 years more than the 2019 value before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Life expectancy rose by 3.8 years at EU level between 2003 and 2023. All EU countries recorded an increase from 2003 to 2023, with the largest increase in Estonia (6.9 years, from 71.9 years in 2003 to 78.8 in 2023) and the smallest in Greece (2.3 years, from 79.3 to 81.6).

In 2023, the highest life expectancies at birth were recorded in Spain (84.0) and Italy (83.8), and the lowest in Bulgaria (75.8) and Latvia (75.9).

Women live on average 5.3 years longer than men

Women live longer than men: data for 2023 show that in the EU life expectancy at birth for women was 84.2 years and 78.9 for men, a difference of 5.3 years. This was the case in all EU countries, with the largest differences in Latvia (10.0 years; women 80.8 and men 70.8) and Lithuania (9.2; 81.7 and 72.5), and the smallest in the Netherlands (2.9; 83.4 and 80.5) and Sweden (3.3; 85.0 and 81.7).

Compared with the situation 20 years earlier, the gender gap in life expectancy at birth was 6.4 years in the EU in 2003 (women 80.8 and men 74.4), 1.1. years more than in 2023. In the EU countries in 2003, the highest differences were in Lithuania (11.3; 77.7 and 66.4) and Estonia (10.8; 77.2 and 66.4) and the lowest in Cyprus (4.4; 81.2 and 76.8) and Malta (4.4; 80.8 and 76.4). Between 2003 and 2023, the gender gap in life expectancy at birth has decreased in 25 EU countries, with biggest decreases in Luxembourg (−2.6 years; from 6.0 to 3.4) and Lithuania (−2.1; from 11.3 to 9.2). The only increases were in Bulgaria (0.6; from 7.0 and 7.6) and Romania (0.2; from 7.4 to 7.6).

In 2023, the highest life expectancies at birth for women were recorded in Spain (86.7) and France (85.9), and the lowest in Bulgaria (79.6) and Hungary (80.1). For men, the highest life expectancies at birth were estimated in Malta (81.8), Italy, Luxembourg, and Sweden (all 81.7), and the lowest in Latvia (70.8) and Bulgaria (72.0).

Excess mortality

Around 1.97 million additional deaths in the EU between March 2020 and February 2024, compared with the 2016-2019 average

In April 2020, a new European data collection on weekly death counts was launched. The main reason for this launch was to measure the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. By comparing the weekly deaths with the average for the same period from 2016 to 2019, the level of excess mortality, or the number of additional deaths, can be determined.

In total there were around 1 964 000 additional deaths in the EU between March 2020 and February 2024, compared with the 2016-2019 average. From these additional deaths around 578 000 were in 2020, 658 000 in 2021, 515 000 in 2022, 206 000 in 2023, and 10 000 in January-February 2024. By the end of April 2023 – WHO chief declared end to COVID-19 as a global health emergency on 5 May 2023 – there were 1 789 000 additional deaths in the EU. National trends were quite varied across the EU. From March 2020 until February 2024, February 2023 and February 2024 were the only months when there was no excess mortality in the EU as a whole, when excess mortality fell to −1.0% and −1.1% due to around 4 000 and 5 000 fewer deaths, respectively, compared with February 2016-2019 average.

In the visualisation below, the different waves of excess mortality during the pandemic can be seen at EU and country levels. Some of the mortality increase in July and August 2022 compared with the same months of the years 2020 and 2021 may be due to heatwaves that then affected parts of Europe.

Population diversity

This section presents immigration and emigration, non-national population, acquisition of citizenship and differences between rural and urban regions.

Immigration and emigration

In 2022, 7.0 million international immigrants

In 2022, about 7.0 million people ​​​​​immigrated to the EU countries. Of those, 5.1 million people came from non-EU countries and 1.5 million people previously residing in one EU country migrated to another EU country. For 0.4 million immigrants the country of previous residence is unknown.

In 2022, the largest numbers of persons immigrating were recorded in Germany (2 072 000 persons, 30% of all immigrants into EU countries), Spain (1 259 000, 18%), France (431 000, 6%) and Italy (411 000, 6%). Immigrants into these four EU countries made up 60% of all immigrants entering an EU country in 2022. Slovakia (5 500, 0.1% of all immigrants into EU countries), Cyprus (31 100, 0.4%), Luxembourg (31 400, 0.5%) and Malta (35 000, 0.5%) recorded the smallest numbers of immigrants.

In many EU countries, a large majority of immigrants are non-nationals

Immigrants are either non-nationals or nationals who have the citizenship of the country to which they move. In 2022, over half of immigrants were non-nationals in 25 among the 27 EU countries. The largest shares were observed in Czechia (99%), Luxembourg, Malta, and Austria (all 95%). On the other hand, in Slovakia, 67% of immigrants in 2022 held a national citizenship, followed by Romania (65%), Portugal (49%) and Bulgaria (47%).

EU citizens

13.9 million EU citizens living in another EU country

The EU population has the freedom to move and reside in the different EU countries. The largest group of EU citizens residing in other EU countries as non-nationals on 1 January 2023 was Romanian citizens (3.2 million or 23% of the 13.9 million EU citizens living in another EU country as non-nationals), followed by Polish and Italian (both 1.5 million or 11%), and Portuguese citizens (1.0 million or 7%).

Looking at the period 1 January 2018 to 1 January 2023, the number of EU citizens living in another EU country has increased for 24 EU citizenships and decreased for 3. The largest relative increase during this period can be observed for Maltese (+42%), Luxembourgish (+37%), and Irish (+32%) citizens whereas decreases were recorded for Danish (−13%), Finnish (−12%), and Austrian (−2%) citizens.

Moroccans, Syrians and Albanians largest groups acquiring citizenship across EU countries

Looking at the period 2016 to 2022, the total number of citizenships granted to non-nationals in the EU was lowest in 2018 (677 000) and highest in 2022 (990 000), a 19% increase compared with 2021 (833 000). In terms of original citizenships, the largest groups acquiring citizenship of an EU country in 2020, 2021, and 2022 were Moroccans and Syrians (11% and 9%, respectively, of all citizenships granted by an EU country in 2022) and Albanians (5%). Before 2020, during the period 2016 to 2019, Moroccans and Albanians were the largest two groups acquiring citizenship of an EU country, ahead of Turks from 2015 until 2018 and of Britons in 2019.

Share of children born to foreign-born mothers increasing

Another way of looking at population diversity is through the share of children born to foreign-born mothers. In 2022 in the EU, 22% of children were born to mothers who were not born in their country of residence of 2022, an increase of 4 pp from 18% in 2013. In 2022, Luxembourg (66%), Cyprus (41%), as well as Austria, Belgium, and Malta (all 33%) recorded the highest shares, while the lowest were in Slovakia, Bulgaria (both 2%) and Lithuania (4%).

Compared with 2013, 24 of the 27 EU countries showed in 2022 an increase in the share of live births to foreign-born mothers. Malta recorded the highest increase in this share (22 pp, from 11% in 2013 to 33% in 2022) followed by Portugal (from 16% to 24%). Decreases were recorded in Croatia (from 15% to 12%), Italy (from 21.9% to 21.5%), and Hungary (from 4.9% to 4.6%).

Rural and urban regions: differences

Higher share of people of working age in urban regions

People in the EU live in different kinds of regions: rural, urban or ‘intermediate regions’. Different age group shares in the total population were observed in different regions on 1 January 2023. For the working age population (aged 20-64), there was a higher share in urban regions than in rural regions at EU level (60% and 57%) and in all the 23 EU countries for which data are available for both urban and rural regions, except Slovakia (60.8% and 61.1%). The differences were highest in Denmark (64% and 55%), Finland (60% and 53%), and Sweden (59% and 53%).

For those aged 65 to 79 years the pattern was the opposite: there was a lower share in urban regions than in rural regions at EU level (14% and 17%) and in all available EU countries, except Poland, Slovakia, and Latvia, where the share of urban regions was slightly bigger (up to 0.5 pp). The differences were highest in Denmark (11% and 18%), Bulgaria (15% and 21%), and France (13% and 18%).

At EU level, the shares of the 3 types of region were the same in each of the other 3 age groups: 15% to people aged less than 15, 5% to those aged 15 to 19, and 6% to those aged 80 or over. In these age groups, the biggest difference in the share of the population in urban and rural regions was for those aged 80 and over in Spain: 5% and 10% (the latter was the highest share in this age group).

Higher fertility rates in rural regions

The total fertility rate (number of live births per woman) also differs according to which region people live in. In 2022 in the EU, the fertility rate in urban regions was 1.39, in intermediate regions 1.49 and in rural regions 1.57. Among the 23 EU countries for which data are available for both urban and rural regions, the fertility rate was lower in urban than in rural regions in 19 EU countries, with the largest differences in Hungary (1.21 in urban regions and 1.70 in rural regions), Latvia (1.21 and 1.64), and Ireland (1.32 and 1.64). Among the 4 EU countries which had the opposite pattern, the largest differences between regions were observed in Lithuania (1.35 and 1.21) and Portugal (1.48 and 1.40).

Marital status

This section focuses on marriage and divorce rates, age at first marriage and live births outside marriage.

Fewer marriages

Number of marriages going down

The number of marriages varied in the period 2002 to 2022 in the EU. The crude marriage rate, meaning the number of marriages per 1 000 persons, peaked at 5.0 marriages per 1 000 persons in 2007. After that it stayed at 4.1 marriages per 1 000 persons or above until 2019, when it was 4.3.

In 2020 and 2021,affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, the crude marriage rate recorded its lowest values since 1964 (the first available year) at 3.2 and 3.9, respectively. In 2022, it rebounded to 4.2.

In 2022, the lowest marriage rates were observed in Italy and Slovenia (both 3.2 marriages per 1 000 persons), and the highest in Hungary (6.6) and Latvia (6.3). For Cyprus also, the latest available data (8.9 in 2019) was high.

Older when getting married

The increase of the average age of mothers when giving birth to their first child in the last 2 available decades (2002-2022) was discussed above (see the part ‘Older mothers’). In this time period, also the mean age at first marriage has increased, in fact in every EU country. The biggest increases – around six to seven years– were observed in Portugal (from 25.7 years for women and 27.9 years for men in 2002 to 32.7 and 34.4, respectively, in 2022) and Spain (from 28.6 and 30.7 in 2002 to 34.7 and 36.8 in 2022). On the other hand, the smallest increases were observed for women in Denmark (2.9 years increase from 30.1 years in 2002 to 33.0 years in 2021) and for men in Greece (0.9 years increase from 31.5 years in 2002 to 32.4 years in 2021).

In 2022, the oldest mean age at first marriage for both women and men was observed in Spain (34.7 and 36.8, respectively) and the youngest for women in Romania (28.0) and for men in Poland (30.7).

Over half of all live births are outside marriage in 9 EU countries

The proportion of live births outside marriage in the EU increased continuously between 2002 and 2019, from 27.8% to 42.7%, while in 2020 and 2021 it decreased to 41.9% and 41.8%, respectively. In 2022, it increased to 42.2% Between 2002 and 2022 (or the latest year available), the share of births outside marriage increased in 23 EU countries (all except Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia), with the largest increases observed in Portugal (+34.7 pp, from 25.5% to 60.2%), Italy (+28.6 pp, from 11.0% to 39.6%), and Spain (+28.4 pp, from 21.7% to 50.1%).

In 2022 or the latest year available, over half of all live births were outside marriage in 9 EU countries. In 2022, the highest shares were observed in France (65.2%), Portugal (60.2%), and Bulgaria (59.9%), and the lowest in Greece (19.2%) and Croatia (24.8%). For Cyprus also, the latest available data (21.2% in 2019) is low.

Divorce rate fluctuating

Looking at the period 2002 to 2022, the crude divorce rate, meaning the number of divorces per 1 000 persons, in the EU fluctuated. In 2002, there were 1.8 divorces per 1 000 persons. This increased to reach a peak of 2.1 in 2006. After that, the rate decreased and ranged between 1.8 and 1.9 from 2009 until 2019. The rate dropped to 1.6 in 2020, was 1.7 in 2021 and 1.6 in 2022. From 2002 to 2022, the highest decrease was in Belgium (from 3.0 to 1.7) and the highest increases were in Italy (from 0.7 to 1.4) and Spain (from 1.0 to 1.7). High increases were also in Malta (from 0.1 in 2011 to 0.9 in 2022) and Greece (from 1.0 in 2002 to 1.8 in 2017).

In 2022, the highest crude divorce rates were observed in Latvia (2.9 divorces per 1 000 persons) and Lithuania (2.6), and the lowest ones in Malta (0.9) and Slovenia (1.0). For Ireland also, the latest available data (0.7 in 2017) was low.

About this publication

Demography of Europe is an interactive publication released by Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union.

Context

Quote from Dubravka Šuica, European Commission Vice-President for Democracy and Demography:

‘The data presented in this publication will help us analyse the reasons behind the multi-faceted demographic trends across the European Union, because not every EU country is affected in the same way. This publication is another key building block for our demography portfolio, it confirms demography as a catalyst for the development and the success of our policies.’

Quote from Paolo Gentiloni, European Commissioner for Economy:

‘Demographic change in the European Union is a key policy topic for this Commission. The pandemic has reiterated how important it is that our policies resonate with people and protect them. What distinguishes this new Eurostat publication is its simple and interactive way of bringing information about European demography to our citizens.’

Information on data

Data in the visualisations are linked directly to the online database up to the reference period(s) – months in 1 visualisation, year(s) in all others– indicated in each visualisation. The visualisations present data on the latest available reference period (2023 or 2022), often also on several earlier reference periods (for example: all years 2003-2023; or 2003, 2013 and 2023).

The accompanying text was finalised by mid-May 2024 and reflects the data situation at that moment in time. If data on the latest year was missing from some country, it could sometimes be replaced by a previous year’s data when the accompanying text was written.

For more information

• Thematic section on population and demography
• Thematic sub-section on international migration and citizenship
• Database on population and demography
• Database on international migration and citizenship
• Statistics Explained articles on population and demography at national level
• Statistics Explained articles on population at regional level
• Statistics Explained articles on migration and asylum
• Statistics 4 beginners article on population statistics
• Statistics Explained glossary on population
• The impact of demographic change in Europe

Contact

If you have questions on the data, please contact Eurostat User Support.

Copyright and re-use policy

This publication should not be considered as representative of the European Commission’s official position.

© European Union, 2024

The reuse policy of European Commission documents is implemented based on Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39).

Except otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0) licence. This means that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated.

For any use or reproduction of elements that are not owned by the European Union, permission may need to be sought directly from the respective rightholders. The European Union does not own the copyright in relation to the photographs:

Cover: © BABAROGA / Shutterstock.com
Population structure: ©fizkes / Shutterstock.com
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Population diversity: © Uskarp / Shutterstock.com
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Identifiers

Catalogue number: KS-FW-24-004-EN-Q
ISBN 978-92-68-14375-9
ISSN 2600-3368
doi:10.2785/911441